In layman's terms, Film Theory is a way of breaking down movies and television. Here is another in-depth film theory definition from britannica. Film theory can be the building blocks for knowledge, debate, and study.
Wonder what the ending of Taxi Driver means? Or maybe you just want to dig deeper into your own work. Theorists break films down to analyze them according to their place in society.
The better you get at reading films, the more meaning you can put into your work. We'll break these down later. First, let's get something meaningful out of the way. All three are very different studies and even more different ways to approach film and filmmaking. Film Criticism picks apart movies. It's done by scholars, who want to analyze the film's worth.
And it's done journalists, who review the film for the general population. Film History chronicles the journey of cinema from its start to the present day. Film History tracks landmark changes that go with the passing of time.
So you pop your Blu-Ray into the player, and you're ready to get started. Roger Ebert , often credited as the man who brought criticism to the masses, uses this cheat sheet to break down a film:. Movement to the right seems more favorable; to the left, less so. The future seems to live on the right, the past on the left.
The top is dominant over the bottom. The foreground is stronger than the background. Symmetrical compositions seem at rest. Diagonals in a composition seem to "move" in the direction of the sharpest angle they form, even though of course they may not move at all. Therefore, a composition could lead us into a background that becomes dominant over a foreground.
Tilt shots of course put everything on a diagonal, implying the world is out of balance. I have the impression that more tilts are down to the right than to the left, perhaps suggesting the characters are sliding perilously into their futures. Left tilts to me suggest helplessness, sadness, resignation. Few tilts feel positive. Movement is dominant over things that are still.
A POV above a character's eyeline reduces him; below the eyeline, enhances him. Extreme high angle shots make characters into pawns; low angles make them into gods. Brighter areas tend to be dominant over darker areas, but far from always: Within the context, you can seek the "dominant contrast," which is the area we are drawn toward.
Sometimes it will be darker, further back, lower, and so on. It can be as effective to go against intrinsic weightings as to follow them. While he goes on not to take any of that as the whole truth, it's a great start for the novice viewer. Ready to get to the harder stuff?
There are three main types of films. Realism , Classical , and Formalism. We have an article based on rejecting realism and embracing formalism. So once you have the definitions down, circle back for some fun! This type of film focuses on the real. Movies and TV take us to many different places, but to fall into this category, the piece has to be dedicated to showing the unfiltered world.
Realism strives to show the real world for what it is. Understanding Cinema. International Programme Cinema cent ans de jeunesse is an international programme with partners across the world. Understanding Cinema was funded by Screen Scotland. Everything Else.
Your Basket is empty. Home How to start a cinema Understanding audiences. Within the broad leisure sector, operators are increasingly focusing on the social aspects of leisure and on four influences affecting the choice of activity: Group composition — who do we attend cinema with: family, friends, or alone?
Mental and physical energy — a small proportion of attenders are highly motivated to attend cinema and encourage friends to join them. Others are tired after work or have family commitments. Location — will it be possible to have a complete evening out in one location?
Deals and events — Given the relatively high cost of regular cinema attendance deals such as family tickets and subscription schemes can be attractive. Establishing a catchment area Planning a cinema development, like any other leisure or retail development, involves estimation of the catchment area that the new cinema will serve and from which it can expect to draw audiences.
The most appropriate catchment for any individual cinema will depend on: The scale of the cinema planned screen multiplex or 2-screen independent? The quality and range of other leisure facilities near the planned cinema visits to cinemas are usually accompanied by other leisure activities, such as shopping, eating and drinking The extent of car ownership within the proposed catchment and the attitude to travel for leisure purposes rural residents are often more inclined to travel long distances for their leisure The quality and frequency of public transport late evening services being particularly important The age and life-stage profile of the target audience children, youth audience or older adults?
The surrounding geography is the town remote from other significant population centres or are there lots of small communities within the catchment boundary?
Demographic and lifestyle data A wide range of population, economic and lifestyle data is available from local authorities, from National Statistics , and from commercial companies such as CACI Ltd and Experian. Field research Apart from conducting desk research i.
Audience development Of course, you may confound received wisdom and expectation by attracting pensioners to Star Wars and teenagers to an archive presentation on land army girls. Next Chapter 05 Organisation and constitution. Previous Chapter 03 Planning. Guide What licences do I need? First Name. Last Name. What region are you based in? What would you like to receive emails about? Join the mailing list Be first to hear about jobs, opportunities, our training, films and much more.
Get in touch Got a question about independent cinema? Hochberg and Brooks reported that replacing one of the shots by a blank frame does not lead to confusion.
For example, if shot 7 were replaced by a blank frame, the view of the lower left angle of the cross would seem to have been skipped, and shot 8 would be recognised as to present a view of the lower left corner. That is, the trajectory of the views would remain intact in keeping with the overall view of the object. This illustrates all the more the leading role of the schema of a cross in the perception of its parts.
A smooth understanding of non-overlapping cuts may require dedicated knowledge of discursive story units and rules for their ordering that only literary analysis types of study can reveal Hochberg, , pp. Hochberg and Brooks a , p. They found Gestalt principles unsatisfactory Hochberg, Current film psychologists have taken up this challenge as we shall see briefly. Viewers must be assumed to have an associated motivation to explore the views presented to them. In a series of inventive experiments, Hochberg and Brooks gathered evidence for an impetus to gather visual information.
Looking preference increased with cutting rate and with complexity of shot contents. Visual momentum , or viewer interest, Brooks and Hochberg, ; Hochberg and Brooks, as they termed it is the absorbing experience typical of cinema viewing. The reward of comprehension is carefully dosed by varying the time allowed to the viewer to inspect objects and scenes, dependent on their novelty and complexity.
They have been criticised for relying too heavily on top-down control of perception by too intricate mental structures, by Gibson and others. Footnote 29 Current research in the cognitive structure tradition uses more sophisticated experimental set-ups. Inspiration has been drawn from theories of discourse processing in cognitive science. In this research, the relationship of 'top-down' use of schemas in scene comprehension with 'bottom-up' processing of stimulus features has become an important question.
Footnote 30 Zacks has extensively investigated how film viewers segment the ongoing stream of images and extract meaningful events and actions from it.
Viewer segmentation depends on automatically detected changes in a situation Zacks, Detection of the changes requires only minimal use of schemas, and triggers automated perceptual-motor simulations of events and subevents such as actions. Footnote 31 Segmentation follows the logic of events in the real world. Most importantly, multiple events can be organised in a hierarchical or linear fashion, as scenes, sets of events and subevents or actions Zacks, Extracting events in understanding film scenes needs more than retrieving schemas of real world events.
The fact that they are presented with an idea in mind, is reflected in their understanding. Understanding film scenes and especially characters, their actions, plans and goal has been argued to require a so-called Theory of Mind Levin et al. TOM is a system of cognitive representations of what beliefs, needs, desires, intentions and feelings people have in their interaction with others and the world.
Levin et al. For example, character gaze following that underlies our perception of what characters feel or want to do with respect to an object that they look at requires TOM. TOM underlies grasping spatial and action- relations in scene comprehension across cuts using gaze following. Understanding relations between more complex events require schema-controlled theorizing on what people believe, do, think, and feel. Finally, Levin et al. For example, viewer and character perspectives may clash as in dramatic irony , or the narrator may create false beliefs on story events in viewers.
They have sought answers in profound analyses of the canonical setup delivered by the founders of cognitive film theory in the humanities, such as Bordwell , , and Anderson Continuity editing ensures fluency across shot transitions. Shot A cues cognitive schema-based or narrative expectations that are subsequently matched in shot B. Expectations can be perceptual or cognitive, i. Anderson added a Gibsonian perspective, arguing that the perception of film scenes mimics the perception of real world scenes.
Continuity shooting and editing closely follow the constraints of the human perceptual systems that have evolved to 'extract' continuity from changing views of scenes in the real world. Recent research into the experience of smooth development of events and scenes across shot transitions draws on these principles of continuity narration.
A quite complete and accurate explanation was offered by Tim Smith. Rather it is built on the Gibsonian principle that perceiving continuity in film scenes derives from the continuity that we experience in perceiving scenes in the natural world. The ecology of the cinema renders it sufficient to follow a number of simple spatiotemporal guidelines.
Attention, that is the focused selection of objects in a shot by the viewer, i. The shift of attention from one portion to another of the screen in shot A is shortly followed by the cut, and because the gaze 'lands' in the right place in shot B, the cut has become invisible. Footnote 33 The theory of continuity perception adds precise levels of analysis to the construction of mental scene spaces that Hochberg proposed.
It distinguishes higher level and lower level control of attention. Higher-level ones include 'perceptual inquiries' as Hochberg and Brooks a called them. The expectations or questions that guide the gaze may be minimally articulated, e. The best demonstration to date of the control of focus of attention by the narrative is given in research on suspense and its effects on film viewer gazes by Bezdek et al.
Footnote 34 Their results can be taken to imply that suspense, a state of high absorption, is associated with focal attention to story-world details supervised by expectations created by the narrative see also Doicaru, The study of film viewers' attention has delivered a firm account of the role of the ubiquitous Hollywood continuity film style in the typical experience of smoothly flowing film scenes and stories that audiences allover the world have. Experimental psychology has always aspired basic explanations of perceptual responses, preferably through transparent mechanistic associations with physically observable stimulus conditions.
The role of high-level narrative schema-based attention in smooth film experiences discussed in the previous section, is subject to debates in which experimental data support arguments pro and con. Another are lower level stimulus features in a narrower and technical sense, such as bright lights and movements with sudden onset that automatically attract attention due to the make-up of the senses and the brain.
Especially movement was shown by Smith to be an extraordinary low level attentional cue. The power of low level feature control of attentional shifts has inspired Loschky et al. They start from research findings suggesting that the use of low-level stylistic features can result in attentional synchrony across film audiences, that is individual viewers of a scene gaze at exactly the same portions of the screen at exactly the same time.
Footnote 35 Remarkable degrees of inter-viewer synchronization of visual attention has also been established in studies of localisations of brain activity in film viewers e. Developments in computer vision, image and sound analysis have paved the way for automated extraction of features and patterns in visual and auditory stimuli in terms of multiple dimensions. For example, machine extraction of saliency as a feature predictive of bottom-up attention has been developed and applied in numerous computer vision applications.
A much-cited article by Itti and Koch illustrates the idea for static images. Specialised neural network algorithms detect features such as colour, intensity, orientations, etc. Each feature is represented in a feature map, in which neurons compete for saliency. Feature maps are combined into a saliency map.
A last network sequentially scans the saliency map, moving from the most salient location to the next less salient one and so on. Footnote 36 An excellent explanation of how to obtain saliency maps is given at a Matlab page. Psychologists of film in their attempts to explain the extraordinary smooth and intense perceptual experience that mainstream film typically provides, currently seek to join forces with computer vision scientists.
In a next step, they may seek collaboration with vision labs in the world that attempt to link their low-level film image feature analyses with film narrative structures and viewer responses. Examples of computational film analyses. Number of shot transitions as a function of acts. Cutting , Fig. Note that ordinates are inverted; lower positions of titles mean larger number of shots and decreased shot durations.
Normalised time bins refer to units of duration standardised in view of variable film length of separate titles. Left panel displays distribution of cuts over time and acts, right panel of non-cut transitions such as dissolves, fades and wipes. The work of perception researcher James Cutting has carried the psychology of the film into the next stage of the Gibsonian ecological approach, while also linking it with insights in the structure of film narrative from humanities scholarship.
Footnote 39 In an interesting essay on the perception of scenes in the real world and in film Cutting summarised the ecological perspective on perception stating that understanding how we perceive the real world helps to grasp how we perceive film and vice versa. Footnote 40 In the last decade Cutting developed powerful computational content analysis methods that reveal the patterning of low-level features in relation to dimensions of film style and technology, in representative samples of Hollywood films of well over a hundred titles.
The theoretical starting point of the approach is that movies exhibit reality. The psychologist Cutting subscribes to the analytical distinctions made in literary and film theories between plot, form and style of a narrative on the one hand, and the represented story-world on the other.
The Gibsonian proposal is that analyses of the fabula or story-world i. Low-level features analysed by Cutting and co-workers are physically and quantitatively determinable elements or aspects occurring in moving images, regardless of the narrative.
They include shot duration, temporal shot structure, colour, contrast and movement. The value of each feature can be expressed as an index for an entire film, or for some segment targeted in an analysis.
Footnote 41 Inspection by an analyst complements machine vision analyses, but I would qualify the indexing approach as computational objective film analysis , because of intensive tallying and numerical operations developed by specialists in psychological data-processing.
The features do not constitute events or scenes, but they accentuate these. A recording of their measurements for an entire film would constitute an abstract backbone to be filled with scenes and events. One possible comparison is with the rhythmic score of a song without melodies and words. In the hands of capable film-makers they are indispensable for conveying the narrative, due to their direct, predictable and automated effects on the visual system.
The primary use of the approach is in film analysis. The multi-feature configurations of indices can be used to reliably 'fingerprint' films or sections.
Reliably because the indices are derived from large numbers of measurements. Computational film analysis uses a historical corpus of films and has been deployed over the past decade to corroborate and enrich historical analyses of film style. The corpus consisted of English language films released between and , ten for each year. As Figure 3 illustrates a typical course obtained of the number of shot transitions over film presentation time, interpretable as to mark the acts and the pace of narration, see Figure 3.
An important outcome of the analyses is that clear physical support was obtained for the four-act structure proposed by film historian Thompson across the entire period.
Footnote 43 Shot scale was unrelated to the act structure. Cutting added analyses of higher order level film features that can be interpreted to co-vary with narration. Footnote 44 Cutting then ventured upon a multi-feature analysis of the entire corpus.
Associations among all indices across all titles could be reduced to four dimensions: motion, framing, editing and sound. They correlated in a meaningful way. For example, shot scale was inversely related to shot duration; in classical narration close-ups tend towards briefer durations than wide shots. Each dimension represented polar opposites between features, e. Computational content analysis can explore the dynamics of the dimensional representations over subsequent acts of movies.
Figure 4 reproduces Cuttings findings for prolog, setup, complication, development, climax, and epilog. Footnote 45 It would seem that the analysis winds up in a level of cinematic content representation that is grounded in directly given stimulus features, integrated with film-analytical features that can be readily indexed and seem relevant as production tools in regular filmmaking. Five movie dimensions in narrational space. Reproduced from Cutting Fig. The displayed representation is obtained from dimensional reduction of the numerous associations between film titles in terms of their feature profiles.
The results of the first stage of the analysis are not displayed here, see Fig. In that stage, the number of associations between all titles regarding all features was reduced to four dimensions see main text using principal component analysis.
In the next stage the analysis was applied to the features and films for each separate act, to result in the configurations shown here. Arrows vary in length, correspondingly to differences in the range of values on the dimensions. Black dots indicate median values of the acts on the dimensions. Considering for example the sound dimension, it can be seen that the set-up tends to have more conversation and the climax has more music.
The red bars indicate the dispersion of values on the dimension and the degree it is skewed towards one or the other end. All low-level features can help viewers in categorising films as to genre, and changes in these will support segmentation of events and scenes, which is at the basis of smooth narrative understanding.
Combinations of indices enable more interesting interpretations of possible experience effects. Footnote 46 However, because the studies that the overarching computational content analysis was based on do not involve response measurement, a direct connection between cinematic form especially narrative procedures and cinematic meaning that Cutting argues for is open to further elaboration. Even in the face of the richness of directly given information that has been extracted using computers, Cutting sees room for the use of cognitive schemas.
The very narrative acts that are underlined by immediately given information may be schematic in nature, but he finds it more likely that their functioning is less dependent on memory-processes than the very high-level cognitive structures implied in cognitive scripts and TOM reasoning.
To conclude the sections on the cognition of film scenes, we seem to have made important progress in understanding how movies construct events in film viewers' minds an brains, as put it in his state of the art review. Movies in part "dictate" events, actions and scenes to viewers' brains using an "alphabet" of visual and auditive features; viewers in turn contribute to the construction of story-worlds by developing and matching higher-order structural anticipations using embodied cognitive event, character and narrative schemas.
Since , the film units that have been analysed increased from paired single stimuli as apparent motion experiments to whole film acts as in computational film analysis. Analyses of narrative structure from film theory have become for the psychology of film what harmonics and counterpoint analysis signify to the psychology of music or the theories of syntax and semantics to psycholinguistics.
They inform psychological notions of film structure and organization. The third part of The Photoplay deals with issues other than the psychological mechanisms or the psychology of film form namely the awareness offered by the photoplay. His characterisations of this conscious awareness, what it is like to watch theatrical films, or in other words the phenomenology of the film experience remains in my view as yet unparalleled. Apart from the sense of freedom that we have already discussed, they include attentional and affective experiences.
The mind has triumphed over matter and the pictures roll on with the ease of musical tones. And finally, he singled out the role of focused attention in enjoyment. Twentieth century academic psychology did not develop much of a body of theory and research on human consciousness. Measurements of perceptual, attentional, cognitive and affective responses in experimental psychology are extremely limited with regards to the contents of consciousness that they tap.
Lab tasks enabling measurement are must be simple, e. Self-reports associated with such tasks must be quantifiable and take the shape of choice responses, simple intensity ratings or readily codifiable reports. Behavioural measures are farther removed from any contents of experience because these need to be inferred. Here, too, simple objective coding is a must.
Descriptive and interpretative reports of the qualia and meaning of experiences afforded by film have been largely left to hermeneutic film criticism and phenomenologically oriented film philosophy in the humanities.
Meanwhile, progress can be reported in understanding one aspect of the rich and complex film experience namely its intensity. Elsewhere we have proposed to refer to the experience of intense attention as absorption in a story-world Tan et al. Media psychologists specialised in research on media entertainment Vorderer et al. We discuss four of these. Narrative engagement Bussele and Bilandzic, , is a pleasant state of being engrossed or entranced by the narrative as a whole as it is presented in a book or film, including the activity of reading or viewing it.
Footnote 47 Tele- Presence Schubert et al. Footnote 48 The concept has its origin in research into the experience of virtual realities. It is considered a major gratification offered to readers of narrative and film viewers alike.
It overlaps with presence in that it features a sense of being in the story-world, as well as a realistic and attentive imagery of details. Footnote 50 More than presence, the operationalisations of transportation entail personal relevance and participatory sympathetic feeling, amplifying the emotional quality of the experience. Empathy is the common denominator for concepts referring to absorption in the inner life of fictional characters. Like transportation, it is seen as a major gratification in reading stories and watching drama and movies.
Viewer empathy has been defined as perceiving, understanding and emotionally responding to character feeling in the seminal work on the subject by Zillmann Zillmann, , Perceived similarity and sympathy for the character grounded in moral attitudes have been suggested and tested as determinants of spectator empathy in drama e.
Footnote 51 There is still a need to sort out possible forms of empathy specific to the canonical conditions of the cinema which may be quite different from situations in real life where we observe other persons. Footnote 52 Moreover, empathy with film characters can be less or more cognitively demanding. Footnote 53 Identification e. Footnote 54 It can be argued that empathy is the rule in film viewing while identification is the exception e.
According to Smith they use 'alignment' techniques that promote perspective taking and allegiance strategies that foster viewer sympathy for the character while the distinction between self and character is unaffected. Finally, flow Csikszentmihalyi, is the odd person out in the series of absorption-like experience concepts reviewed here, because it applies not only to absorption in movies, narratives or games, but to any activities that stand out for a certain intensity and intrinsic reward as well.
Mainstream movie continuity film style facilitates flow a great deal as it tedns to minimize challenges posed by transitions from one view or perspective to another.
Obviously, these and other varieties of absorption are not mutually exclusive. Viewers feel absorbed in another, exceptionally vivid reality, 'clothed in the [embodied] forms of our consciousness' presence and transportation. Focused attention is already in The Photoplay a major component of the film experience, that would later be investigated in research on bottom-up vs.
Absorption is an affective state characteristic of the film expeirience. However, a description of the typical experience of narrative films is incomplete if more specific affective states are not considered. Watching movies has been identified with emotions. We go to the cinema to experience mirth, compassion, sadness, bittersweet emotions, thrill, horror, and soon in response to what we see and hear happening to characters and ourselves.
Twenty-first century film psychology has taken up where he left off, and a major step forward has been to regard the narrative structure of films as a fundamental starting point for explaining film viewer emotions.
Important work on emotion in media users has been done in media psychology, most on empathy with characters, but narrative induced emotion has not received much attention, as can be seen from a complete overview by Konijn Cognitive scholars in the humanities have highlighted different aspects of film narratives that induce perceptions of fictional events associated with intense emotional experiences e.
I hope the reader will allow me to use my own work on the subject as an illustration. It is closely related to the cognitive - theoretical analyses just referred to. I have found a cognitive approach to emotion in general psychology fruitful for narrative modelling of emotion in film viewing. Footnote 57 Investigations of film-induced emotion have raisedthe issue of apparent realism : how can a clearly fictional world be taken for real to the effect of intensely moving emoting viewers?
Oatley introduced a cognitive theory of narrative fiction as simulation , , that applies to film as a stimulus for possibly complex emotions. Narrative runs simulations on the embodied mind just as programs run simulations on computers. Footnote 58 I would add that filmviewers take part in a playful simulation in which the film leads them to imagine they are present in a fictional world, where they witness fictional events that film characters are involved in Tan, , , Being a witness involves embodied perceptions of what happens in a fictional world, as well as in the imagination constructing and participating in events, without acting on these.
In the process, events are taken for real for the sake of playful entertainment. The theory posits that the emotion system has evolved for adaptive action in the first place.
For example, the sight of a monster will spawn a strong urge to flee due to a basic concern for safety being jeopardised. Of course, film audiences do not run out of the auditorium. Playful simulation provides the contextual frame for the complex appraisal of apparent realism of film events. The appraisal has three stages: perceptual, imagination based and self-involved. Many popular film stimuli provoke immediate and automated appraisals of concern relevance and ensuing emotional responses, due for instance to their nature of unconditioned stimuli in the real world.
A snake popping out from the bush would be an example. Emotional appraisals in the cinema can be and often are empathetic. That is they include perspectives on events taken by film characters. Footnote 60 But popular films also present us with emotional stimuli that are immediately perceived as fake, for example a rubber prop snake. Due to the playful simulation frame further cognitive processing of perceptions takes place.
In the first case, film viewers realise that just perceived events are not real but must be held true for the sake of a playful simulation. In the second, they realise that the fake stimulus is only a prompt, and comply with its invitation to hold the stimulus true and allow it to appeal to their concerns, also for the sake of playful simulation.
Once imagination takes over from perception, the reality status of stimuli is traded for believability. As part of the imagination fictional events are matched with higher order genre-specific narrative schemas, and then dealt with as possibilities in a particular world. As Frijda argued when he discussed the apparent reality of fiction: 'Seeing a fake snake approach a real person is not scary.
But watching an imaginary snake approach an imaginary Jane is. The first is seen as unreal in a real word, and the second as real in an imaginary world. And this is how we appraise events in fiction. The fun of art is in the play with the duality' p.
Play with the possibility of events in the imagined world and entertaining as-if emotions can suffice for genuine emotion to arise. As I argued elsewhere Tan, the appraisal of the possibility of events in a particular fictional world can and usually does lead to genuine emotion, because humans have been equipped with a capacity to have emotions in response to mental representations of counterfactual and imaginary events. The genuine emotion can—but does not need to—open up considerations of the believability of fictional events in the real world.
The appraisal of fictional film events is treated in more detail in Tan and Visch The search for film style and technology features that are conducive to particular emotional appraisals has only slowly lifted off. Cutting's computational content analyses were already mentioned There are scattered empirical studies e. Film technique manuals and critical anayles provide abundant intuitively convincing examples of how to produce emotionally appealing sequences. It is to be expected that computational film analysis will soon enable large scale studies of the use of style and technology in emoting scenes.
Back to emotion and action. As film viewers perceive film scenes to be projections on screen of a fictional world, they understand they cannot act, and their action tendencies are suppressed. Driven by sympathy, viewers desire that protagonists escape from a horrific situation. In their imagination they anticipate and hope that the protagonist is saved by someone or something and if need be by a fictional miracle.
Footnote 63 Thus, they experience or exhibit a virtual form of action readiness Frijda, However, there is one thing that film-viewers as witnesses invariably do when properly emoted: eagerly watch the events on screen. Following cognitive film theory further, I consider the emotional experience of film as the sum total of experience of the appraisal, internal and external bodily expressions and changes in action readiness integrated in consciousness in accompanying the sensory intake of units of film.
Narrative films can be argued to address two basic emotional concerns in particular, curiosity and sympathy Tan, All sorts of narrative fiction, including film provoke interest by presenting events with uncertain consequences. Thus, they address a basic curiosity , that is a need for novelty, knowing and exploration.
Interest is the emotion that responds to appeals involving this concern. Interest in film viewing does have a real action readiness to it referred to above: watch eagerly. Because the response in interest includes spending and focussing attention to specific story-world events, its experience goes hand in hand with absorption.
Movies continuously present cognitive challenges that viewers know they can meet. Footnote 65 Silvia has shown in a greater number of studies that this is the condition for optimal interest.
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